The History of Mandates and Dictatorships in an Ancient Republic
Why Mandates and Dictatorships Set Dangerous Precedents
Many people have no idea how the world’s early Republic (Rome) collapsed and became a dictatorial Empire. Here I explain a brief history of the Republic’s transition towards a dictatorship, and how it all started with allowing elected Consuls (equivalent to today’s Presidents) to have “temporary” powers (as dictators) to enforce mandates and executive orders in times of emergency.
Dictatorships Inside Republics
In ancient Rome, known as the earliest Republic in recent recorded human history, nobody was above the balance of power/law. Only in times of military crises, upon recommendation of the Senate and confirmation by the Popular Assembly (equivalent to the House today), the elected Consuls (equivalent to a Presidential council today, as they were two of them balancing each other) nominated a Dictator with "Mandates" power but only for a maximum term of six months, although the Dictator customarily laid down his powers as soon as the crisis passed.
By 300 BC, due to some abuses, the people limited the dictatorial powers by subjecting them to the right of appeal and to veto by a Tribune (an advocate for plebs' or ordinary non-elite people from non-patrician families).
But after years of military spending, foreign invasions and civil wars, in 81 BC, Sulla (Lucius Cornelius Sulla) a warrior from a poor family background but conservative values assumed the role of a Dictator for more than six months to “Restore the republic” and to preserve Rome's glory by enacting reform laws against what he considered corruption and abuse of power by the elites. He only stepped down from his Dictatorship after “two years” of reforming many laws. He married several times and his ruling style was brutal. He demanded the beheading and death of any opponents and elite figures he placed on his proscription list.
Sulla's Dictatorship, an extra-constitutional office with virtually unlimited powers, set a precedence for another one a few years later. In 49 BC, Julius Caesar gave himself, again for the purpose of “reform,” an extra-constitutional office with virtually unlimited powers, not for a limited emergency but for nearly five consecutive years until his assassination in 44 BC.
After Caesar's death, it became unlawful to propose, vote for, or accept any dictatorship. Any person who became dictator also could be summarily executed. But it was too late. The Republic practically became obsolete by 27 BC when Octavian (Augustus) was granted “permanent” consular powers including SOLE Imperium within city of Rome, so he is generally considered the first Roman Emperor.
Shortly before the birth of Jesus, as empire was born. Plagued by corruption, civil and foreign (with Persians) wars, and undermined by popular anti-establishment Christian teachings of Jesus and his disciples, the empire weakened and eventually split into Western Roman Empire (which collapsed by 476 AD) and Eastern Roman Empire (A sanctuary for Christian believers) which survived for another millennium with Constantinople as its sole capital, until the city's fall in 1453, after years of being invaded by Rome (Pope's Army) and later Ottoman Empire (Muslims).
Today, what is left of Roman Republic is a bunch of half-ruined tourist attractions (such as those seen in the Forum). We are sometimes shocked at how selfish, greedy (excessive) and violent earlier humans were, without asking ourselves: “Are we any different?!”
My articles here on Substack outline the plague of our metamorphosis into a new species I call Homo economicus. For those who like history, psychology, neuroscience and economics, in my book I use a parallel timeline to correlate our brain evolution and our history with our metabolism (health), economy, health and behavioral psychology.